Iranian Journal for the History of Islamic Civilization

Iranian Journal for the History of Islamic Civilization

Rereading the religious identity of pre-Safavid Iranians through Sufi discourse: A case study of the position of the first four caliphs of the Prophet in mystical sources of the Timurid era

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors
mostafa gohari 1
Mojtaba Soltani Ahmadi 2
Zahra Siyafi 3
1 Associate Professor of Department of Islamic Civilization and Culture, Faculty of Theology and Islamic Studies, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
2 Associate Professor, Department of History and Civilization of Muslim Nations, Payame Noor University, Tehran, Iran
3 PhD of Department of Islamic History, Payame Noor University, Tehran, Iran
10.22059/jhic.2026.414101.654645
Abstract
Some scholars reduce the religious conversion of Iran in the Safavid era to a mere product of political coercion, assuming that pre-Safavid society was strictly Sunni. This study challenges that assumption, arguing that it fails to capture the complexity of the era’s religious landscape. To understand these developments, one must analyze the doctrinal nature of the ninth-century Sufi orders, which played a foundational role in the religious and cultural life of the time. Previous research has often mistakenly treated any display of devotion to the Ahl al-Bayt (AS) as proof of being Shiite. This research examines the positions of three prominent Sufi orders – the Naqshbandiyyah, Kubrawiyyah, and Nematullahiyyah – specifically regarding the first four caliphs. This approach is critical because the concept of succession remains the primary differentiator between Sunnism and Shiism. The results reveal that these orders operated within a fluid and multilayered religious structure. At the theological level, they maintained a Sunni identity by upholding the legitimacy of the Rightly Guided Caliphs. However, in their mystical discourses, they explicitly prioritized the spiritual status, virtues, and guardianship (wilayah) of Imam Ali (AS) and the Ahl al-Bayt. While the Naqshbandiyyah remained more defensive of the first three caliphs, the Kubrawiyyah and Nematullahiyyah aligned more closely with Shiite concepts of infallibility. This inherent synthesis of Sunni and Shiite elements meant that the formalization of Shiism under the Safavids did not encounter significant structural resistance from society, effectively paving the way for the new religious order
Keywords
Kubrawiyya
Timurids
Shiism
Sufism
Iran
Subjects
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Iranian Journal for the History of Islamic Civilization
Volume 59, Issue 1
(Spring & Summer 2026)
September 2026
Pages 145-164

  • Receive Date 09 May 2026
  • Revise Date 20 June 2026
  • Accept Date 29 August 2026