سنوسیه: فرقه ای که می توانست سراسر شمال آفریقا را به آتش بکشد (۱۸۵۰-۱۹۱۴)

نوع مقاله : پژوهشی

نویسنده

استاد، گروه تاریخ و تمدن ملل اسلامی، دانشکدۀ الهیات و معارف اسلامی دانشگاه تهران، تهران، ایران

10.22059/jhic.2025.389405.654552

چکیده

در دهه‌‌های اخیر افزایش تحرکات اسلامی سبب توجه فزایندۀ پژوهشگران به ریشه‌‌‌ها و سوابق چنین جنبش‌‌هایی در جوامع اسلامی شده است. در این زمینه، مطالعۀ واکنش مسلمانان به حضور استعماری قدرت‌های بزرگ اروپایی در سرزمین‌های اسلامی نظریه‌‌های مختلفی را به بار آورده است. پیرو این رویکرد، تحقیق حاضر به مطالعۀ حرکت فرقه‌ای اسلامی موسوم به «سنوسیه» در شمال آفریقا، به‌ویژه لیبی، در فاصلۀ ۱۸۵۰-۱۹۱۴م. اختصاص دارد که مبارزات موفق این فرقه علیه قدرت‌های استعمارگر اروپایی به بیداری جهان اسلام کمک کرد. یافته‌‌‌ها نشان می‌دهد که از لحاظ عقیدتی، سنوسیه بر اساس برداشتی محلی از اسلام - طریقت شکل گرفته بود. این ویژگی توسعۀ جنبش را در داخل و خارج از لیبی محدود می‌کرد. از زاویۀ منابع مالی، جنبش سنوسیه بیش از هرچیز وابسته به تجارت برده‌‌ بود که با سیاست جلوگیری تجارت برده از سوی قدرت‌های بزرگ در سدۀ ۱۹م. غیرقابل اتکا شد.
در عرصۀ اقدامات سیاسی - نظامی به نظر می‌رسد که سرچشمۀ موفقیت‌های سنوسیه را باید در سیاست استعماری بریتانیا در مصر و سودان، و فرانسه در الجزایر و تونس جست‌وجو کرد که جهت جلوگیری از برخورد، ترجیح دادند بیابان لیبی منطقه‌ای حائل میان مستعمراتشان باشد. این در حالی بود که ضعف مانع از مداخلۀ عثمانی در امور لیبی می‌شد. سنوسیه ضمن پذیرش مشروعیت خلافت عثمانی و با استفاده از خلأ قدرت موجود، از اواسط سدۀ ۱۹م. خود را در لیبی تثبیت کردند. از آن پس تا آغاز جنگ جهانی اول (۱۹۱۴م.) سنوسیه رهبری جهاد و نیز مبارزه علیه استعمار فرانسه و ایتالیا را در لیبی در پیش گرفتند.

کلیدواژه‌ها

موضوعات


عنوان مقاله [English]

The Sect Who Might Set All North Africa Ablaze: The Senussis (1850-1914)

نویسنده [English]

  • Mohammad Ali Kazembeyki
Professor, Department of History and Civilization of Islamic Nations, Faculty of Theology and Islamic Studies, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
چکیده [English]

The growth of Islamic movements in Muslim societies during the recent decades has brought about increasing attention of scholars to roots and records of such happenings. In this field, the study of Muslims’ responds to the colonial presence of European powers in Islamic lands, attracting academics, has resulted in various theories. Following this approach, the present work aims to study the movement of an Islamic sect, namely Sanusiyya/ Senussiyyah, in north Africa, especially in Libya, during 1850-1914 when their successful struggle against European colonial powers helped Muslim awaking much. The findings show that from ideological point of view, Sanusisbeliefs were founded on local understanding of Islam-Sufism in Libya. This restricted expansion of Sanusism within and without Libya. As to the financial resources, the Sanusis were mostly dependent on slave trade. But this asset became unreliable as a result of slavery trade prohibition policy of the great powers in the 19th century.
In the field of political-military efforts, it seems that the origin of Sanusis’ achievements should be searched for in the colonial policies of Britain (in Egypt and Sudan) and France (in Tunis and Algeria) who to avoid unnecessary conflicts preferred to keep Libyan desert as a buffer between their colonies, while weakness prevented the Ottomans’ involvement in Libyan affairs. Having accepted legitimacy of the Ottoman Caliphate, the Sanusis took advantage of the existing power vacuum and established themselves in Libya (mid-19th century). Since then, till the beginning of the Great War (1914) they conducted the Jihads and operations against both Franch and Italian colonialism in Libya itself.

کلیدواژه‌ها [English]

  • Sanusiyya
  • Islamic Movements
  • Libya
  • Africa
  • Colonialism
أبوسبیحه، أ. منى َأبوالقاسم (٢٠٢٢). أحمد الشریف و دوره فی الحرکه الوطنیه و النضال ضد الاختلال الأجنبی. مجله أبحاث (جامعة سرت١٩، ٤٥١-٤٧٣.
ارویعی، محمد. علی قناوی (۲۰۱۱). سلیمان باشا البارونی و نشاطه السیاسی فی المهجر 1924-1940. مجله کلیه الآداب، جامعة قاریونس ـ بنغازی، ۳۵، 38-1.
بِرّو، توفیق علی (۱۹۶۰). العرب والترک فی العهد الدستوری العثمانی 1908-1914. قاهره: مطبعه دارالهنا.
البوری، عبد المنصف حافظ (۱۹۸۳). الغزو الایطالی للیبیا: دراسه فی العلاقات الدولیه. الدار العربیه للکتاب.
التلیسی، خلیفه محمد (۱۹۸۳). معجم معارک الجهاد فی لیبیا 1911-1931. الدار العربیه للکتاب.
ترکمان، محمد [به‌کوشش] (۱۳۷۰). اسنادی دربارۀ هجوم انگلیس و روس به ایران. تهران: دفتر مطالعات سیاسی و بین‌المللی.
تریو، ا. د. ج. ل. (۲۰۱۷). السنوسیهّ فی تشاد، دراسه فی حاله ودای. مجله کلیه الآداب، ۴۱، ۲47-۲12.
حسینى رکن‌آبادى، سید میر صالح و دیگران (۱۳۹۶ش.). درآمدی بر اندیشه‌‌های سنوسیه در لیبی. دو فصلنامه علمی ـ پژوهشی مطالعات اندیشه معاصر مسلمین، ۶، ۱53-۱31.
حقیقه ادریس: وثائق و صور و اسرار (۱۹۷۶) طرابلس: المنشإة العامة للنشر و التوزیع و الاعلان.
حمدی، ابراهیم عیسی (1956). الشیخ سلیمان باشا البارونی فی طوار حیاته. ج1و2. المطبعه ‌العربیه.
خیاله، سامی هاشم (٢٠١٠/ ۱۴۳۱ق.). موقف الدول الأوربیه من الحرب الإیطالیه ـ اللیبیه ١٩١١-١٩١٢م. رساله دکتری. دانشگاه سنت کلمنتس.
الزاوی، الطاهر احمد (۱۹۵۰). جهاد الابطال فی طرابلس الغرب. قاهره: بی‌نا.
السویحلی، صلاح الدین (۲۰۰۸). جهاد اللیبیین ضد الغزو الایطالی من خلال الوثایق الانجلیزیه. مصراته: دارالشعب للطباعه و النشر.
شکری، محمد فؤاد (۱۹۴۸). السنوسیه دین و دوله. قاهره: دارالفکر العربی.
عبدالمالک بن عبدالقادر بن علی (۱۹۶۶). الفواید الجلیه فی تاریخ العایله السنوسیه. دمشق.
العیساوی، محمد الاخضر (۱۳۵۵ ق.). رفع الستار عما جاء فی کتاب عمر المختار. قاهره: مطبعه حجازی.
منسی، محمود حسن صالح (۱۹۸۰). الحمله الایطالیه على لیبیا: دراسه وثائقیه فی استراتیجیه الاستعمار و العلاقات الدولیه. قاهره: دار الطباعه الحدیثه.
یحیی، أ. مروه مخزوم (۲۰۲۲). المنهج الدعوی للحرکه السنوسیه فی لیبیا، الامام محمد بن علی السنوسی 'انموذجا'. مجله اصول الدین، ۶(۲)، ۶85-666.
 
Abbott, G. F. (1912). The Holy War in Tripoli. London: Edward Arnold.
Abed, N. Y. (2021). The Ottoman Parliament Discussions for the Italian occupation of Libya (1911-1912) Between Democracy and Dictatorship. Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education, 12(11), 2603-2614.
Adams, C. C. (1946). The Sanusis. Muslim World, 36(1), 21-45.
Africa (1891). The Eencyclopedia of Missions, I, New York, Funk & Wagnnalls, 6-32.
Ahmad, F. (2014). The Young Turks and the Ottoman Nationalities: Armenians, Greeks, Albanians, Jews, and Arabs, 1908–1918. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
Ahmida, A. A. (2005). Forgotten Voices- Power and Agency in Colonial and Postcolonial Libya. New York: Routledge.
Aksakal, M. (2008). The Ottoman Road to War in 1914: The Ottoman Empire and the First World War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Alexander, B. (1907). From the Niger to the Nile. London: Edward Arnold.
Alexander, F. G. (1912). Wayfarers in the Libyan Desert. New York: G. P. Putman’s Sons.
Askew, W. C. (1942). Europe and Italy’s Acquisition of Libya, 1911-1912. Durham: Duke University Press.
Aydin, C. (2007). The Politics of Anti-Westernism in Asia: Visions of World Order in Pan-Islamic and Pan-Asian Thought. New York: Columbia University Press.
Azevedo, M. (1982). Power and Slavery in Central Africa- Chad (1890-1925). The Journal of Negro History, 67(3), 198-211.
Bakirova, B. (2024). The Last Struggle of the Ottoman Empire in North Africa: The Turkish-Italian War of 1911-1912 and the Role of Mustafa Kemal. Beykent Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 17(2), 15-28.
Barclay, T. (1912). Turco-Italian war and Its Problems. London: Constable & Company.
Barthorp, M. (1986). War on the Nile: Britain, Egypt and the Sudan 1882-1898. UK: Blandford Press.
Beehler, W. H. The History of the Italian-Turkish War: September 29, 1911 to October 18, 1912. Anapolis: William H. Beehler.
Boahen, A. Adu. (1962). The Caravan Trade in the Nineteenth Century. The Journal of African History, 3(2), 349-359.
Bosworth, R. J. B. (1979). Italy the Least of the Great Powers: Italian Foreign Policy Before the First World War. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Bosworth, R. J. B. (1984). Italy and the End of the Ottoman Empire. In Marian Kent (ed.) The Great Powers and the End of the Ottoman Empire, 2nd ed. London: Frank Cass, 51-72.
Bovill, E. W. (1933). Italy in Africa, Part I and II. In order African Affairs, Vol. 32(127), 178-186 and Journal of the Royal African Society, Vol. 32(129): No. 129 (Oct., 1933), 350-361.
Bridge, F. R. (1996). The Habsburg Monarchy and the Ottoman Empire, 1900–18. In M. Kent(ed.) The Great Powers and the End of the Ottoman Empire, 2nd ed., London: Frank Cass, 31-50.
Butler, D. A. (2007). First Jihad: Khartoum, and the Dawn of Militant Islam. Philadelphia: Casemate.
Buzpinar, S. T. (1996). Opposition to the Ottoman Caliphate in the early years of Abdulhamid II-1877-1882. Die Welt des Islams, 36(1), 59-89.
Caccamo, F. (2015). Italy, Libya and the Balkans. In D. Geppert et al. (eds.) The Wars before the Great War: Conflict and International Politics before the Outbreak of the First World War. UK: Cambridge University Press, 21-40.
Cana, F. R. (1915). The Sahara in 1915. The Geographical Journal, 46(5), 333-357.
Cassar, G. H. (2016). Kitchener as Proconsul of Egypt, 1911-1914. Palgrave Mcmillan.
Childs, T. W. (1990). Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War Over Libya, 1911-1912. Lieden: Brill.
Choate, M. I. (2008). Emigrant Nation: The Making of Italy Abroad, Cambridge. Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Cordell, D. D. (1977). Eastern Libya, Wadai and the Sanūsīya: A Ṭarīqa and a Trade Route. The Journal of African History, 18(1), 21-36.
Darmesteter, J. (1885). The Mahdi: Past and Present, trans. A. S. Ballin. New York: Harper.
Deringil, S. (1991). Legitimacy Structures in the Ottoman State- The Reign of Abdülhamid II (1876-1909). International Journal of Middle East Studies, 23(3), 345-359.
Djemal Pasha, A. (1922). Memories of a Turkish statesman, 1913-1919. London: Hutchinson.
Dotolo III, F. H. (2015). A long small war, Italian counterrevolutionary warfare in Libya, 1911 to 1932. Small Wars & Insurgencies, 26(1), 158–180.
El Senoussi and the Mahdi (1889). Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society, 5(1-3), 93-95.
El-Horier, A. S. (1981). Social and Economic Transformation in the Libyan Hinterland during the second half of the Nineteenth Century: The Role of Sayyid Ahmad al-Sharif al-Sanusi. PhD Dissertation, University of California.
Ellis, M. H. (2018). Desert Borderland: The Making of Modern Egypt and Libya. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (1945). The Distribution of Sanusi Lodges. Journal of the International African Institute, 15(4), 183-187.
Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (1945-49). A select bibliography of writings on Cyrenaica. African Studies, I, 4(3), 146–150; II, 5(3), 189–194; III, 8, 2, 62-65.
Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (1949). The Sanusi of Cyrenaica. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Fage, R. Oliver, The Cambridge History of Africa, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 159-207.
Fall, J. C. Ewald (1913). Three Years in the Libyan Desert, translated by E. Lee, London: T. Fisher Unwin.
Forbes, R. (1921). Secret of Sahara: kufura. New York: G. H. Doran Co.
Fowler, G. L. (1972). Italian Colonization of Tripolitania. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 62(4), 627-640.
French Colonies in Africa (30 Dec. 1911). The African World, 37(477), 489.
Furlong, C. W. (1914). The Gateway to the Sahara: Adventures and Observations in Tripoli. 2nd ed. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
Gall, M. Le (1989). The Ottoman Government and the Sanusiyya: A Reappraisal. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 21(1), 91-106.
Ganiage, J. North Africa. trans. Y. Brett in The Cambridge History of Africa, VI, eds. J. D.
Ghāzi, M. A. (1983). Emergence of the Sanussiyyah Movement: A Historical Prospect. Islamic Studies, 22(3), 21-43.
Giolitti, G. (1923). Memoirs of My Life. translated by S. Edward. London: Champan and Dodd.
Gooch, J. (1989). Army, State and Society in Italy, 1870–1915. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Gregory, J. W. (1911). The resources of Tripoli. The Contemporary Review, 100, 768–781.
Hamilton, J. (1856). Wandering in North Africa. London: J. Murray.
Helmreich, E. C. (1938). Diplomacy of the Balkan war 1912-1913. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Herbert, E. (2003). Small Wars and Skirmishes: 1902-1918. Nottingham:Foundry Books.
Holt, P. M. (1970). The Mahdist State in the Sudan, 1881-1898: A Study of Its Origins, Development and Overthrow. 2ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Iba Der Thiam (2016). Colonial Penetration and Resistance Movements in Africa’s Muslim Countries. 91-96, The Different Aspects of Islamic Culture, vol. six/part I, eds. Abdulrahim Ali, Iba Der Thiam and Yusof A. Talib, Paris: UNESCO, 91-96.
Irace, C. T. (1912). With the Italians in Tripoli: the authentic history of the Turco-Italian War. London: John Murray.
Joffé, G. (1996). Reflections on the role of the Sanusi in the central Sahara. The Journal of North African Studies, 1(1), 25–41.
Karpat, K. H. (2001). The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman State. New York: Oxford University Press, USA.
Kasuya, G. (2009). Turkey between Pan-Islamism and Nationalism: The Activities of Ahmad Sharif al-Sanusi in Anatolia, 1918–1924. In S. Tsugitaka (ed.), Development of Parliamentarism in the Modern Islamic World. Tokyo: Toyo Bunko, 205-219.
King, W. J. H. (1908). A Search for the Masked Tawareks. London: Smith, Elder & Co.
Knysh, A. (2002). Sufism as an Explanatory Paradigm: The Issue of the Motivations of Sufi Resistance Movements in Western and Russian Scholarship. Die Welt des Islams, New Series, 42(2), 139-173.
Koloğlu, O. (2007). 500 Years in Turkish-Libyan Relations, Center for Strategic Research. Ankara: SAM Papers.
Koloğlu, O. (2008). Libya, from the Ottoman Perspective (1815-1918). Africa: Rivista trimestrale di studi e documentazione dell'Istituto italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente, Giugno 2008, Anno 63, No. 2, La Libia nella storia del Mediterraneo. Atti del Convegno, Roma, 10-12 maggio 2003: 275-282.
Lapworth, C. (1912). Tripoli and Young Italy. London: Stephen Swift and Co.
Le Neveu, C. A. (1928). France and Italy in North Africa. Foreign Affairs, 7(1), 132-138.
Lord Kitchener in Egypt (1912). The Fortnightly Review, 91(543), 507-520.
Lowe, C. J. (1977). Grey and the Tripoli War, 1911–1912. In F. H. Hinsley (ed.) British Foreign Policy under Sir Edward Grey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 315–323.
Lugard, F. D. (1895). England and France in the Nile Valley. The National review, 25(149), 609-626.
Manger, L. O. (1999). Muslim Diversity: Local Islam in Global Contexts. In idem (ed.) Muslim Diversity: Local Islam in Global Contexts. London: Rotledge.
Martin, B. G. (1976). Muslim Brotherhoods in Nineteenth-Century Africa. London: Cambridge University Press.
McClure, W. K. (1913). Italy in North Africa And- Account of the Tripoli Enterprise. London: Constable & Co.
McCollum, J. (2015). Reimagining Mediterranean Spaces- Libya and the Italo-Turkish War, 1911-1912. Diacronie, 23(3), 1-17.
Military Notes (1913). Royal United Services Institution. Journal, 57, 423, 680-699.
Minawi, M. (2016). The Ottoman Scramble for Africa: Empire and Diplomacy in the Sahara and the Hijaz. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Muedini, F. (2015). Sufism and Anti-Colonial Violent Resistance Movements: The Qadiriyya and Sanussi Orders in Algeria and Libya. Open Theology, 1(1), 134-145.
Nitti, F. S. (1922). Peaceless Europe. London: Cassell and Co.
O’Fahey, R. S.; Radtke, B. (1993). Neo-Sufism Reconsidered. Der Islam, 70(1), 52-87.
Oishi, T. (1996). An enquiry into the structure of Pan-Islamism in India: The phase of the Italo-Turkish and Balkan Wars, 1911-1913. Minamiajiakenkyu (Journal of the Japanese Association for South Asian Studies), 8, 58-89.
Orazi, S. (2017). Imperialism and national pride in the Italo-Turkish war (1911-12). Working Papers Series, 3(47-64). Fisciano: ICSR Mediterranean Knowledge.
Ostler, A. (1912). The Arabs in Tripoli. London: John Murray.
Özcan, A. (1997). Pan-Islamism: Indian Muslims, the Ottomans and Britain (1877-1924). Leiden: Brill.
Paoletti, C. (2008). A military history of Italy. Westport: Praeger Security International.
Paris, M. (1991). The First Air Wars - North Africa and the Balkans, 1911-13. Journal of Contemporary History, 26(No. 1), 97-109.
Peters, E. L. (2007). The Bedouin of Cyrenaica: Studies in Personal and Corporate Power. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Peters, R. (1979). Islam and Colonialism: The Doctrine of Jihad in Modern History. The Hague: Mouton Publishers.
Radclyffe, R. (1911). In the Temple of Mammon. The Academy, LXXX, 423-425.
Rosher, C. (1912). The Red Oasis: A Record of the Massacres perpetrated in Tripoli by the Italian Army, October 23rd to 28th, 1911. London: The Century Press.
Samatar, S. S. (ed.) (1992). In the Shadow of Conquest: Islam in Colonial Northeast Africa, Trenton. NJ: Red Sea Press.
Sanoussi, the Sheikh of Jarbob (1894). Blackwood's Edinburgh magazine. 156, 27-37.
Segrè, C. G. (1974). Fourth Shore: The Italian Colonization of Libya. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Simon, R. (1987) .Libya between Ottomanism and nationalism: The Ottoman involvement in Libya during the War with Italy (1911-1919). Berlin: Klaus Schwarz Verlag.
Slight, J. (2019). The Sanussiyya Sufi Order and Anglo-French Intelligence Sharing, 1915–1916. In Fichter, J. R. (ed.) British and French Colonialism in Africa, Asia and the Middle East Connected Empires across the Eighteenth to the Twentieth Centuries. Palgrave Macmillan, 67-87.
Sorby, Jr., K. (2005). Arab Nationalism After the Young Turk Revolution (1908-1914). Asian and African Studies, 14(1), 4-21.
Stanley, H. M. (1893). Slavery and the slave trade in Africa. New York: Harper.
Stead, W. T., Tripoli the and Treaties: Britain's Duty in this War (1911).
Stein, S. A. (2008). Plumes: Ostrich Feathers, Jews, and a Lost World of Global Commerce. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Stephenson, C. (2014). A box of sand: the Italo-Ottoman War 1911-1912, the first land, sea and air war. England: Tattered Flag Press.
The Coming of Mahdy (1882). Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine, 132, 304-315.
The Partition of Africa (1899). The Cyclopedic Review of Current History, 9(1), 107-109.
The Work of Commandant Tilho in Tibesti and Wadai (1918). The Geographical Journal, 51(No. 4), 240-245.
Threfall, T. R. Senussi and his threatened Holly War (1900). The Nineteenth century, 47(277), 400-412.
Tilho, J. (1920). The Exploration of Tibesti, Erdi, Borkou, and Ennedi in 1912-1917: A Mission Entrusted to the Author by the French Institute. Translated by W. G. Tweedale. The Geographical Journal, 56(Nos. 2-4), 81-99, 161-183 & 241-263.
Tittoni, R. (1914). Italo-Turkish war, Kansas City. Mo: Franklin Hudson Publishing Co.
Treaty of Peace Between Italy and Turkey, signed at Lausanne October 18, 1912 (1913). The American Journal of International Law, 7(1), Supplement, Official Documents, 58–62.
Turkey as Victim and Victimizer (1911). The Contemporary Review, 100, 862-873.
Turkey as Victim and Victimizer (1911). The Contemporary Review, 100, 862-873.
Uzoigwe, G. N. (1985). European partition and conquest of Africa: an overview. In General History of Africa, vol. VII (Africa under Colonial Domination 1880-1935), ed. A. Abdu Boahen, London: UNESCO, 19-45.
Van Genugten, S. (2016). Libya in Western Foreign Policies, 1911–2011. London: Palgrave MacMillan.
Van Rensselaer Trowbridge, S. & S. Effendi Abd-ul-Ahad. (1915). The Moslem Press and the War. The Muslim world, V-1, 413-425.
Vandervort, B. (1998). Wars of Imperial Conquest in Africa, 1830-1914. London: UCI Press.
Vandervort, B. (2018). A Military History of the Turco-Italian War (1911-1912) for Libya and Its Impact on Italy’s Entry into the First World War. In V. Wilcox (ed.) Italy in the Era of the Great War. Leiden: Brill, 14-29.
Vikør, K. S. (1995). Sufi and Scholar on the Desert Edge-Muhammad b. Ali al-Sanusi and His Brotherhood. Evanston: Northwestern University Press.
Vikør, K. S. (2014). Religious Revolts in Colonial North Africa. In D. Motadel (ed.) Islam and European Powers. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 170-186.
Vikør, K. S.) 2015). Sufism and Colonialism. In L. Ridgeon, (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Sufism. New York: Cambridge University Press, 212–232.
Vischer, A. (1911). Tripoli. The Geographical Journal, 38(5), 487-494.
Vischer, H. (1909). A Journey from Tripoli across the Sahara to the Lake Chad, The Geographical Journal, 33(3), 241-267.
Voll, J. O. (2008). Neo-Sufism: Reconsidered Again. Canadian Journal of African Studie, 42, 314-330.
Weigall, A. E. P. B. (1915). A history of events in Egypt from 1796 to 1914. Edinbrough: Blackwood.
White, A. S. (1899). From Sphinx to Oracle, Through the Libyan Desert to the Oasis of Jupiter Ammon. London: Hurst and Blackett.
Wilox, V. (2015). The Italian soldiers’ experience in Libya, 1911–1912. In D. Geppert et al. (eds.) The Wars before the Great War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 41-57.
Wingate, F. R. (1891). Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan; being an account of the rise and progress of Mahdiism and of subsequent events in the Sudan to the present time. New York: MacMillan.
Woodberry, G. E. (1914). North Africa and the Desert: Scenes and Moods. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
Wright, J. (1982). Libya: A Modern History. Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press.
Wright, J. (2007). The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade. UK: Routledge.
Wrigley, W. D. (1980). Germany and the Turco-Italian War, 1911-1912. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 11(No. 3), 313-338.
Yilmaz, S. (1999). An Ottoman warrior abroad: Enver Pasa as an expatriate. Middle Eastern Studies, 35(4), 40-69.
Zürcher, E. J. (2010). The Young Turk Legacy and Nation Building: From the Ottoman Empire to Atatatürk’s Turkey. London: I. B. Tauris.
 
 
 
Documents
UK, National Archives:
CAB
FO
 
Official Publications
Great Britain, British Documents on the Origins of The War, 1898-1914, Vols. IX, X (Parts I and II).
Great Britain, Captain C. Gleichen (1898) Handbook of the Sudan, London: HMO.
Great Britain. Foreign Office. Historical Section (1920) Italian Libya, London: HMO.
Great Britain, Naval Intelligence Division (1920) A Handbook of Libya, London: HMO.
 
Historical Newspapers, Magazines
The African World and Cape-Cairo Express (London, England)
Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine
Daily Mail
Daily Telegraph
The Herald Tribune (New York)
The New York Herald (European Edition)
The Globe (Toronto)
Illustrated London News
Manchester Guardian
New York Times
Spectator (London)
Standard (London)
Times (London)
The Times of India (Bombay)
The West African Mail (Liverpool, England).